The table below provides a snapshot of the diverse professional development opportunities available to teachers, detailing their definitions and influences. These approaches range from evidence-driven methods to collaborative and reflective practices, each offering unique strengths and challenges.
The table is an offshoot of my doctoral research on the Department for Education’s (DfE) Early Career Framework (ECF), which—arguably—positions professional development as a science-centred configuration of evidence-based practice (for discussions on this configuration, see Wrigley & McCusker, 2019; Parry et al., 2021; Simmie et al., 2023; Jones, 2024). Whilst I have no objection to this interpretation of evidence-based practice, it is not the only research-informed professional development model available.
This blog simply outlines the table and was created for no other reason than to explore divergent approaches to teacher training and professional development in education. It is reproduced below in case it may be of use or interest to others, especially as the ECF and the DfE’s Initial Teacher Training Core Content Framework seemingly favour evidence-based approaches that are focused on cognitive science (Jones, 2024).
The current notion of evidence-based practice, promoted by the Department for Education (DfE), popular education writers such as Bennett (2013), and cognitive scientists like Weinstein et al. (2018), emphasises measurable outcomes by drawing on rigorous research and data to inform teaching (Hargreaves, 1996; Hattie, 2009; Timperley et al., 2007). While this approach aligns well with accountability standards and scientific rigour, it can sometimes overlook the complexities of classroom dynamics and the contextual knowledge that teachers bring to their practice (Biesta, 2010; Wrigley & McCusker, 2019). Striking a balance between evidence and practitioner expertise is essential for its effective implementation.
Collaborative approaches, on the other hand, such as Professional Learning Communities (PLCs), peer observation and lesson studies, highlight the importance of collective reflection and shared learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Gore, 2022). These methods promote professional dialogue and a sense of community among educators, which can lead to meaningful changes in practice. However, their success depends heavily on a supportive culture and sufficient time for collaboration—resources often scarce in educational settings (Opfer & Pedder, 2011).
Action research and transformative professional development encourage teachers to take ownership of their learning, critically reflecting on their practices and broader societal issues (Bell, 2005; McNiff, & Whitehead, 2005; Hess, 2001; hooks, 1994; Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999; Freire, 1996). These methods foster innovation and adaptability but require significant commitment and a mindset open to change. They also, by their scale, tend to be less representative than other types of research and professional development models.
Workshops, seminars, and online learning provide flexibility and accessibility, making them valuable for introducing new concepts or skills (Guskey, 2000; Desimone & Garet, 2015). However, they often lack the depth and ongoing support needed for sustained impact, which mentoring and coaching are better positioned to provide (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Eshchar-Netz & Vedder-Weiss, 2021).
Overall, the table illustrates that various types of research-informed professional development exist. While I do not claim that any one approach is inherently superior to the others, I suggest that a blend of these approaches, tailored to specific goals and contexts, is most effective. However, one limitation of categorising and tabulating these types of professional development is the considerable overlap between them. For example, there are significant similarities between action research and transformative CPD, or between collaborative inquiry, peer observation and lesson study. Teachers benefit most from opportunities that combine evidence, collaboration and personal reflection, allowing them to grow in ways that align with their unique challenges and aspirations.
| Type of PL/CPD | Definition | Example papers |
| Action Research | A cyclical process where teachers identify challenges in their teaching practices, implement interventions, and reflect on outcomes to improve learning. Action research empowers educators by fostering autonomy and problem-solving, encouraging them to critically engage with their work and adapt strategies to fit their unique contexts. | Naughton (2001); Bell (2005); Cochran-Smith & Lytle (1999); McNiff & Whitehead (2005); Whitehead and McNiff (2006); Stringer (2008) |
| Collaborative Inquiry/PLC | A professional learning model where groups of educators collaboratively explore teaching strategies, analyse data, and reflect on practice. This approach builds a culture of shared responsibility, fosters dialogue about effective teaching and supports continuous improvement within schools. | Lave & Wenger (1991); Opfer & Pedder (2011); Gore et al. (2021); Hargreaves (2012); Hargreaves & Fullan (2012); Harris & Jones (2012) |
| EBP (Evidence-Based Practice) | An approach to professional learning and teaching that relies on rigorous, research-based evidence to inform instructional practices. The emphasis is on measurable outcomes and using proven methods to improve student achievement. This model encourages teachers to integrate findings from cognitive science and large-scale studies into their classrooms. | Hargreaves (1996); Hattie (2009); Desimone & Garet (2015); Weinstein et al. (2018); Coe & Kime (2019); Kirschner & Hendrick (2020); Perry et al. (2021) |
| Formal Qualifications | Involves teachers pursuing additional certifications or degrees to deepen their professional knowledge and expertise. These qualifications provide structured opportunities to engage with academic theories, develop specialist skills and enhance career prospects. | Cochran-Smith & Lytle (1990); Williams (2005); Opfer & Pedder (2011); Loxley, & Seery (2012); Berkant & Baysal (2017) |
| Lesson Study | A collaborative process where teachers jointly plan, teach, and observe a lesson, followed by reflective discussions to refine instructional approaches. This model is widely used to foster professional growth, support peer learning and improve the quality of teaching. | DCSF (2008); Lewis & Herd (2011); Dudley (2011); Frost, (2012); Fujii (2016) |
| Mentoring and Coaching | A personalised professional development approach in which experienced teachers or coaches provide ongoing guidance, feedback, and support to help others improve their instructional practices. It fosters confidence, skill development and a reflective mindset among mentees. | Knight (2007); Darling-Hammond, et al. (2017); Eshchar-Netz & Vedder-Weiss (2020); Sherrington & Caviglioli (2020); White, E. & Macintosh, J. (2022) |
| Online Learning/Virtual CPD | Professional learning delivered through digital platforms, offering flexibility for educators to learn at their own pace. These platforms can include webinars, online courses, and virtual workshops, making CPD accessible and adaptable to individual needs. | Opfer & Pedder (2011); Desimone & Garet (2015); Christodoulou, D. (2020); Martin, Sun & Westine (2020); Lemov (2020) |
| Peer Observation | A collaborative approach where teachers observe one another’s classroom practices to provide constructive feedback and share effective strategies. This model builds trust, promotes professional dialogue, and fosters the exchange of ideas to enhance teaching quality. | Gosling (2014); Thomson, Bell, & Hendry (2015); Hargreaves (2018); Ridge & Lavigne (2020); Gore et al. (2021); O’Keeffe et al. (2021) |
| Transformative CPD | A professional learning approach that encourages educators to critically examine their roles as agents of change. It focuses on addressing moral, social, and ethical dimensions in education, fostering a reflective and activist mindset. | hooks (1994); Freire (1996); Hess (2001); Sachs (2010); Chevalier & Buckles (2013) |
| Workshops and Seminars | Short-term, focused training sessions designed to build specific teaching skills or knowledge. Workshops and seminars provide intensive learning experiences but often lack follow-up support to ensure long-term impact. | Guskey (2000); Timperley (2008) |
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